Lab 1: The Scientific Method

Instructions: Please read through the following description of the scientific method, watching videos, and following links where indicated. After the lab introduction, you will get to Lab Activity 1. As you complete the activities and reflection questions, please fill out your answers on the answer sheet provided in Blackboard. All activities and questions you need to complete have been highlighted. You may submit them as digital assignments, or as hard copies in class.

The scientific method is a process for empirically testing possible answers to questions about natural phenomena that are repeatable and verifiable. These questions are based on observations of the world. Answers develop from tests and add to existing bodies of knowledge. The scientific method includes:

1. Observation.  A researcher may make observations directly from nature with their senses, or from the written words of other investigators who published scientific articles that are available in university libraries. Either way, the observed phenomenon must be repeatable – something that can be observed more than once.

2. Research. Collect enough data about your observation so that you can create an accurate, informed hypothesis.

3. Hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the observed phenomena (i.e., a general answer statement to the question).

4. Experiment. All hypotheses must be testable. The testing, or experimental, stage produces more information (data) about the original observation that may or may not support the hypothesis. This stage is often repeated multiple times, by different researchers, who may not have been involved in the original observations.

5. Conclusion. After running your experiment, you need to form a conclusion or explanation. This may or may not support the original hypothesis. It is based on your analysis of the data collected and tested in your experiment and has some validity, or support.

6. Disseminate Information. Since an experiment must be repeatable, you need to share your conclusions with the greater community.

            Sometimes, repeated testing by numerous researchers support the same conclusion and stand the test of time. In these cases, the validity of the results is generally accepted by the scientific community and the conclusion may be considered a scientific theory. All scientific theories have been rigorously and exhaustively tested and are supported by a significant body of data. However, there are still cases where theories are found to be incorrect.

Experimental or Research Design.

            Experiments or observations are used to test hypotheses. Specifically, they test the relationships between two (or more) variables.  Often, scientists develop “Test Implications” or a series of “if…then” statements for testing with specific observations.

There are two ways of conducting scientific tests:

• Controlled experiments. These occur when the investigator designs an experimental situation, usually in a laboratory, allowing the researcher to alter one variable and see what effect it has on the other variable. You can learn more about controlled experiments here: Controlled Experiment
• Natural ‘experiments’ or observations. The researcher has little or no control over any of the variables in natural experiments, but uses observation to test generalizations.  Such experiments are common in animal behavior studies, where an investigator spends a considerable amount of time in the field observing subjects and taking careful notes of their observations.

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

There are two types of logical reasoning used to analyze data — inductive or deductive reasoning.

• Inductive Reasoning. In its simplest form, this reasoning strategy uses specific pieces of data —single observations — to arrive at a general conclusion. For example, by observing how apples fall and how the planets move, Newton induced a theory of gravity.

This is the form of reasoning most suited to biological anthropology and almost always, the only form of reasoning used in biological anthropology. This is because of the data available to work with. Biological anthropologists are able to observe just a few groups of primates or collect one bone from an ancient hominid. These are specifics.

• Deductive Reasoning. In its simplest form, this reasoning strategy uses general principles to deduce specifics. An example of this would be 19^th century physicists applying Newton’s theory (general principle) to deduce the existence, position, and orbit of Neptune (specific conclusions) from observations of Uranus’s orbit (specific data).

We are rarely able to use deductive logic in anthropology because our general principles/theories are all derived from specific evidence (ex. All of the early hominid fossil finds are bipedal. Thus, early hominids were bipedal). Every time we find new specific data (like a new fossil) we have to adjust these general principles. As such, biological anthropologists cannot deduce that just because ‘early hominids were bipedal’, every hominid fossil find will be of a bipedal specimen. The next one (specific data) might not be, and thus make us rethink our general principle or bipedality.

Activity 2

            Now that you’ve practiced explaining someone else’s observations, you’re ready to test the process out on your own. Look around your house (or wherever you happen to be completing this lab) and note an observation or question that you want to test. These do not have to be large-scale phenomena — simple, testable observations will do. Examples: my dog tries to eat meat off my plate but not fruit, white socks get dirty faster than black socks, my baby sister cries if everyone leaves the room, etc. Then, fill out the scientific method flow chart on the next page and answer the reflection questions. In this activity, you will need to actually run your experiment, not just describe it. (NOTE: depending on your software capabilities, you can either type your answers directly in the boxes or create new headings and list all your answers below.) You may need to reference the short YouTube video above for explanation of some of the terminology.